![]() ![]() (2005), policies constructed around citizen participation can produce ambiguous results. It is possible, for example, that more radical manifestations of citizen involvement are not accepted as participation. In this way, official practices of citizen participation may lead to new forms of governmentality, to use Foucault’s term. Empowerment is often envisioned as a solution to poverty acceptable to both the political right and left. Yet the question that is rarely asked or answered is, What is empowerment? While the empowerment literature provides a rich array of techniques and goals through which individuals and groups seek to alter their circumstances, it is contradictory in assumptions and emphases and provides little coherence or structure with which to make informed decisions. This paper develops a typology, a ladder of empowerment, based on existing empowerment literature, so that planners and others may gain a clearer understanding of empowerment and its varied potential. Alinsky, S.D. Revillefor Radicals. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press. Alinsky, S.D. Rules for Radicals. New York: Random House. Arnstein, S.R. A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of the American Institute of Planners 35(4): 216- 224., Bachrach, P., and A. Power and Empowerment: A Radical Theory of Participatory Democracy. Philadelphia, Pa: Temple University Press. Why the rational paradigm persists: Tales from the field. Journal of Planning Education and Research 15(2): 127- 135., Betancur, J.J., and D. Race and class in local economic development. In Theories of Local Economic Development, eds. Bingham, R., and Mier, R. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage. The Backyard Revolution: Understanding the New Citizen Movement. Philadelphia, Pa: Temple University Press. The City and the Grassroots. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. Chavis, D., and A. Sense of community in the urban environment: A catalyst for participation and community development. American Journal of Community Psychology 18(1): 55- 81., Checkoway, B. Social planning is more important than ever. Journal of Planning Education and Research 7(1): 57- 59. Dark Ghetto: The Dilemmas of Social Power. New York: Harper and Row. Initiating participatory planning in the Palmer Park Community of Prince George's County (Md.). Paper presented at the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning annual meeting. Detroit, Mich. What's political about self-help? Social Policy 23: 39- 43. Concept of power. Behavioral Science 2: 201- 215., Dalton, L. Why the rational paradigm persists. Journal of Planning Education and Research 5(3): 147- 153. Postmodernism and planning. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 4(3): 367- 384.,, Emener, W. Empowerment in rehabilitation: An empowerment philosophy for rehabilitation in the 20th century. Journal of Rehabilitation 57(4): 7- 12.,, Fawcett, S.B., T. Suarez de Balcazar. Creating and using social technologies for community empowerment. Prevention in Human Services 3(2/3): 145- 171., Fischer, F., and J. Editor's introduction. In The Argumentative Turn in Policy Analysis and Planning, eds. Fischer and J. Forester, 1- 17. Durham: Duke University Press. Florin, P., and A. An introduction to citizen participation, voluntary organizations and community development: Insights for empowerment through research. American Journal of Community Psychology 18(1): 41- 54., Forester, J. Planning in the Face of Power. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. Friedmann, J. Empowerment: The Politics of Alternative Development. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell. Friedmann, J. The public interest and community participation.
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